FLORA OF THE GREATER ANTILLES NEWSLETTER

No. 14 - April 1998

The Early Development of Botanical Institutions in the Antilles, 1765-1901*

Donal P. McCracken

University of Durban-Westville, South Africa

When the French revolutionary war broke out in 1793, Britain had only four proper imperial botanic gardens; two of these were in the Antilles. One, the empire's oldest botanical institution, was on St Vincent, established in 1765 by the maverick military governor, General Robert Melville. Sir Joseph Banks, the doyen of botany, set a trend for the future by pressing for this gardens to have primarily an economic function.1

The second gardens, under the supervision of Jamaica's official botanist, Dr Thomas Clark, was established in 1775 on that island at Bath. Another gardens on Jamaica, at Liguanea, had belonged to a man called Hinton East and was under colonial government control from 1790 until it was sold in 1810. Meanwhile, not far distant at St Pierre on Martinique, the French were busy from 1803 setting up what would be a famous botanic gardens, one which was ultimately to be destroyed, along with its curator, by volcanic activity in 1901.2

In 1818 a botanic gardens was established on the former French-dominated island of Trinidad, an important location given its proximity to the mouths of the Orinoco River, an Aladdin's cave for the botanist. Despite British institutional botany being at a low ebb between the death of Banks in 1820 and the arrival of Sir William Hooker at Kew in 1841, the Royal Trinidad Botanic Gardens flourished under a succession of sympathetic governors and able curators, most notably the plant hunter David Lockhart. Indeed, as early as 1810, Bath botanic gardens had been downgraded and left to run wild and later, in 1822, thanks in part to the eccentric activities of its curator, the irascible George Caley, the St Vincent botanic gardens was abandoned.3 Plants which could be moved were shipped to the Trinidad gardens. The rest, including the prized nutmeg trees, were left to their fate. St Vincent had been an important economic gardens, perhaps best remembered as the eventual destination of Bligh's troublesome breadfruit, which had a limited economic impact as spices remained the dominant economics grown here.

Jamaica: Decline and renewal

There were about 115 botanic gardens in the Victorian British empire; 21 were in the Americas, of which 14 were in the Antilles.4 In the early Victorian era only Bath carried the flag for botany in the British Caribbean.

After a lengthy period of neglect the old gardens at Bath experienced a heyday under the direction of Nathaniel Wilson (1846-67). Wilson was not only a good botanist but he also had the common sense, often lacking in curators, to create a pretty gardens for the general public. Sadly, when Wilson moved on, Bath once again was left to its own devices.5 By that time, however, a new botanic gardens on the island, first gazetted in 1862, was beginning to take shape.

Castletown botanic gardens lay in a picturesque valley near to Kingston, the capital. In 1868 another gardens called Hill or Cinchona was begun up in the Blue Mountains, inaccessible to all but the most intrepid visitor. Finally, in 1873 the Hope botanic gardens was set up near to Kingston on the dry Liguanea plain.6

It is not surprising that Governor Sir John Grant and then Governor Anthony Musgrave saw these four botanic gardens as forming part of a network with the Parade Gardens, the Palisadoes coconut plantation at the harbour and the government house gardens. Indeed, in the late 1870s Musgrave formally united them into a botanical department, one of only half a dozen in the empire. Dr (later Sir) Daniel Morris came from the great botanic gardens at Peradeniya in Ceylon to direct the new department.7 When he left in 1886 to take up the assistant directorship at KEW Gardens, he was replaced by the equally intelligent William Fawcett from London's Natural History Museum. These highly paid botanists (ca. £600 per annuum) were the equal of the impressive botanist-doctor-curators who dominated the principal botanic gardens in India.

With the exception of Bath, which staggered along largely unmolested, the island's botanic gardens actively experimented in growing 'economics' and in particular trying to divert farmers away from total dependence on sugarcane, the crop which had rapidly ousted spices and then coffee. Bananas, indigenous logwood, tea, cinchona as well as different varieties of cane were tried. The department had its own Bulletin, designed in particular to assist farmers. Plant exchange with KEW, other imperial and continental botanic gardens and with large overseas nursery firms was undertaken, especially from Castleton.

As the gardens developed and their beauty increased, so the volume of visitors rose. Castleton even had a small hotel in its grounds. It tried to lay out its plants according to geographical location, with India, Africa and so on, each having its own area in the gardens.

The growing of economic plants might help farmers but nurserymen all over the empire were very suspicious of these 'state-subsidised rivals', which they regarded as a disgrace in a 'civilised, Christian, English colony'.8 Jamaica was no exception and in 1892 the 'commercial nature' of the island's botanic gardens was attacked. This, coupled with the public's demand for pleasure parks, resulted in a downgrading of the gardens. The Hope gardens supplanted that at Castleton and the Hill gardens declined to such an extent that in 1903 it was virtually abandoned, a proportion being rented out to the New York Botanical Garden.

Other Victorian botanic gardens

The Trinidad gardens went from strength to strength in the Victorian era. William Purdie, Henry Prestoe and J. H. Hart were all excellent directors but, a rarity in good curators, they were also excellent plant collectors. By the 1890s the gardens was distributing upwards of 20,000 plants a year across the globe as well as experimenting with economic plants, especially with cocoa.9 It also had its own herbarium, a feature not common in imperial gardens outside of India and Australia.

On the nearby island of Grenada a botanic gardens was established in 1886, a decade or so after gardens had been laid out in Bermuda and the Bahamas. The Grenada botanic gardens, however, was more botanically and economically orientated. Its greatest drawback was the steep hill on which it was situated. The proximity to the prison was a benefit for here, as elsewhere in the empire, free convict labour was eagerly sought by the impecunious curator.

The Grenada gardens, like that established in British Guiana in 1879, was luxuriant and boasted over 700 orchids. Some experiments were carried out, particularly on cocoa. Like Jamaica, Trinidad and soon St Vincent, Grenada produced its own Bulletin.

The botanic station experiment

When the West Indian sugar industry went into serious decline in the early 1880s, Kew responded with an audacious scheme to diversify the islands' economies away from monoculture. Daniel Morris was tasked with creating a network of West Indian botanic stations under the Jamaican botanical department. Crisis or not, colonial rivalry would have none of this. While Barbados established a botanic station in 1885, the Leeward Islands wanted a 'federal botanic garden'; they then quarrelled among themselves with the result that the presidency got only a botanic station in Dominica in 1889.10 Further south in the Windward Islands all was not well either. Grenada's decision in early 1886 to establish a full-blown botanic gardens led to a howl of protest from adjacent British islands, which were meant to contribute to its upkeep. Planters resented being 'tacked on to another colony'; as a St. Lucian newspaper noted:

To ask us to join in paying for a school and schoolmaster at Grenada, while what we require is to be taught our alphabet here, is a cynical mockery.11

By November 1886 St Lucia had won and out of much acrimony a five-acre botanic station was established outside Castries on a site part swamp and part refuse dump. Though small, this soon became a very beautiful gardens.

Following Daniel Morris's departure for Kew, there were once again delays and arguments. Indeed, the imperial botanic stations initiative shifted to British West Africa. A plan to create a botanical headquarters at Trinidad botanic gardens, linked to Grenada, outraged the Jamaican botanical department and annoyed Kew. Still, there was some progress. In some of the islands peasants who purchased crown land were either required to plant certain crops or were given crop seed free from the local botanic station. Later, in 1894, Kew informed the Colonial Office:

I have always been under the impression that the great object which the several West Indian governments have had in promoting Botanical Enterprise was to assist the peasant proprietors.12

In 1889 both Antigua and Dominica at last established botanic stations, the former on a disused sugar estate about a mile from St Johns, and the latter a much larger gardens in a romantic setting behind Roseau. Both grew economics; Antigua having several substations on the island. Dominica station was bisected by a road; to one side grew economic plants and to the other ornamentals. From a report in a local paper the station's curator soon felt at home:

Mr Murray, the curator of the botanic station here, was arrested while under the influence of liquor and 'immured in a cell as a dangerous lunatic'. He was on his way home from choir practice.13

Things were now back on track, helped by a new governor for the Windward Islands, Sir Walter Hely Hutchinson. Montserrat got its botanic station at Plymouth in 1890. By 1901 it had three satellite stations. The long-neglected gardens on St Vincent was rehabilitated in 1890. It had suffered terribly, not least from a hurricane in 1886. Now it was 'deserted and dilapidated'. However, the fact that the governor's house was the old curator's cottage helped the gardens' regeneration. Henry Powell, a Kewite, came to curate the St Vincent station. He was devoted to the gardens, with its magnificently coloured hummingbirds and quickly restored it, at least in part, to its former glory. Daily he would pat the leaves of the surviving old nutmeg tree 'so that its last days will close in comfort'.14

Also in 1890 St Kitts followed the trend and set up a botanic station, which would soon have eight large plant sheds to house economic plants. This craze for establishing botanic stations did not go unnoticed at Kew. In late 1890 and early 1891 Daniel Morris made a tour of inspection of part of the Antilles. This encouraged further development, the most significant being the establishment of a department of agriculture for the Leeward Islands. Both the Antigua and Dominica botanic stations now fell under the new superintendent of agriculture.15

The final phase of the story came in the late 1890s. In 1897 a Royal Commission had recommended that agriculture in the Leeward and Windward islands should come under imperial control, thus neutralising island rivalry - or at least that was the hope. Thus in 1898 Sir Daniel Morris returned to the Caribbean, where his heart lay, as commissioner in charge of the imperial department of agriculture for the West Indies.16

Morris wrote a lengthy paper on the economic resources of the West Indies that was published in 1898 as a supplementary volume to Kew's monthly journal for the empire, the Kew Bulletin. Morris based himself at Dominica botanic station, which had thrived under the guidance of J. R. Bovell, a local planter who ran the adjacent Dodd's reformatory, a fact which facilitated the supply of labour to the station. An agricultural school was now established on the island and another on St Lucia.

Morris also initiated the first West Indies agricultural conference. Seven of these were to be held between 1898 and 1908, when Morris retired.17 In the interim more botanic stations appeared: one on Tobago in 1898, the same year as another was set up on faraway Bermuda, and a third in 1900 at Tortola on the Virgin Islands. Though not in the West Indies, a botanic station at Belize in British Honduras, established in 1892, had close links with the Jamaican botanical department and with Daniel Morris.

The end of the Victorian era saw the beginning of the end for many botanic gardens in the British empire. The enthusiasm for botany and the establishment of colonial departments of agriculture effectively killed them. In the case of the West Indies, the abolition of the bounty on sugarbeet in most European countries in 1902 revived sugar and made it once again king. Was there now any need for botanical institutions in the West Indies? The interesting fact is that while the Jamaican gardens tended to develop into attractive botanical parks, those in the Lesser Antilles remained for some time closely linked to an economic function. This was also the case in West Africa, an indication of the ongoing need to facilitate both peasant and plantation agriculture.

Notes:

1. McCracken, Donal P. Gardens of empire, (London, 1997), p.5.
2. Amer. Hort. Mag. 45(4): 398-403. Oct 1966; Bot. Gaz. 24(5): 350. Nov 1897.
3. British Library, Add.Ms.33982, .117, 121, 153 and 191. See also L. Guilding, An account of the botanic gardens in the island of St Vincent, (Glasgow, 1825).
4. McCracken, Donal P. A new history of Durban botanic gardens, (Durban, 1996), p.2.
5. Gardeners' Chronicle, 13 January 1866 and 16 November 1867.
6. See, for example, Colonial Standard and Jamaica Despatch, 30 December 1892; Daily Gleaner, 5 February 1897; and Jamaica Post, 5 February 1897.
7. A portrait of Daniel Morris appeared in the Journal of the Kew Guild in 1896.
8. See D. P. McCracken and E. M. McCracken, The way to Kirstenbosch, (Cape Town, 1988), p.88; and D. P. McCracken and P. A. McCracken, Natal the garden colony, (Sandton, 1990), p.86.
9. McCracken, D, P. Gardens of empire, p.136.
10. Kew Archive, 'Dominica, 1885-1900', .13-19; and Kew Bulletin, (June 1887), pp.1-2.
11. Voice of St Lucia, 20 March 1886.
12. Kew Archive, 'Antigua, 1889-1900', .120.
13. Gall's Packet Newsletter, 28 June 1890.
14. McCracken, D. P. Gardens of empire, p.192.
15. Kew Archive, 'West Indies, 1884-97', .151.
16. Desmond, Ray. Kew: The history of the Royal Botanic Gardens, (London, 1995), pp.299-300. On one occasion Morris proclaimed to Beatrix Potter, "I am exclusively tropical."
17. The Times (London) 13 October 1908.

* Used by permission of the author D. P. McCracken, from his Gardens of Empire: botanical institutions of the Victorian British Empire. Leicester University Press. © 1997.
Selected Bibliography of Botanical Institutions

in Victorian West Indies, British Guiana, British Honduras and Bermuda*

Donal P. McCracken

University of Durban-Westville, South Africa

This bibliography does not list the hundreds of annual reports for botanic gardens and botanic stations in the West Indies which were printed in the Victorian era. These can be found in various locations including the library of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; the libraries of former colonial botanic gardens; in British colonial government gazettes and occasionally in colonial newspapers.

A. Manuscript material held at Kew Gardens:

1. 1.Botanic gardens and stations manuscript volumes:

2. Exchange books

3. Letter books

4. Miscellaneous

B. Printed sources

1. Newspapers and periodicals

2. Books, pamphlets & articles

* Used by permission of the author D. P. McCracken, from his "Gardens of Empire: botanical institutions of the Victorian British Empire. Leicester University Press. © 1997.

Anguilla

Mary Walker (Librarian, New England Wildflower Society at Garden in the Woods, Framingham, Massachusetts) has been visiting and collecting plants on the island of Anguilla of the Lesser Antilles since 1987. The number of species in the flora has been increased to 516 (Walker, 1997) from the 473 species previously reported in the Flora of the Lesser Antilles (Howard, 1977-1989) and an additional study by Howard & Kellogg (1987). New records, identifications verified by Richard A. Howard, for the island have been vouchered by specimens deposited at the Harvard University Herbaria and the Anguilla National Trust Herbarium.

Howard, R. A. (ed.). 1977-1989. Flora of the Lesser Antilles, Vols. 1-6. Arnold Arboretum: Jamaica Plain, MA.

Howard, R. A. & E. A. Kellogg. 1987. Contributions to a flora of Anguilla and adjacent islets. J. Arnold Arbor. 68: 105-131.

Walker, M. 1997. From hobby to The Anguilla Flora Project in ten years. Wild Fl. (Toronto) 13(4): 39-42.

Correction to FGA Newsletter No. 13

In the article on Page 1: "From Barbados...," In the first paragraph, where it reads: The account in the Flora of the Greater Antilles..., the text should read: "The account in the Flora of the Lesser Antilles...."

Book Still Available

We still have some copies of the volume:A cumulative index to the nine volumes of the Symbolae Antillanae seu fundamenta Florae Indiae Occidentalis edited by Ignatius Urban which was compiled by Eileen Carroll and Stephanie Sutton, with an introduction by Richard A. Howard, published by the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., 1965. The books were donated by Arnold Arboretum.

We will make the book available for the cost of shipping. Check the following for the schedule of rates: Book/surface: U.S.A. and Canada $3.00; Europe, Caribbean, Mexico, South America, Asia, and Australia, $4.00. Book/air: Canada $5.00; Europe, $9.00; Caribbean & South America $7.00; Mexico, $6.00; Asia $10.00; Australia, $11.00.

To order your copy, send your name and complete mailing address plus the correct shipping costs in US$. Checks should be drawn on a U.S. bank and be made payable to The New York Botanical Garden. Otherwise, send U.S. cash. Since the volume is being offered for only the cost of shipping, only prepaid orders will be filled. Send your order to T. Zanoni, New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458-5126, U.S.A.

Telephone Area Code Changes in Caribbean

The area previously covered by telephone area code 809 now has new area codes:

Anguilla (264), Antigua & Barbuda (268), Bahamas (242), Barbados (246), Bermuda (441), British Virgin Islands (284), Cayman Islands (345), Dominica (767), Dominican Republic (809), Grenada (473), Guadeloupe (590), Haiti (509), Jamaica (876), Martinique (596), Montserrat (664), Puerto Rico (787), St. Barthelemy (590), St. Kitts & Nevis (869), St. Lucia (758), St. Maarten (599), St. Martin (590), Trinidad & Tobago (868), Turks & Caicos Islands (649), U.S. Virgin Islands (340).

Upcoming meeting

VII Latin American Botanical Congress, 18-24 October 1998, in Mexico City. Abstracts for poster sessions due 15 May 1998: Information & send abstracts to: Dr. Ramón Riba, Presidente del VII Congreso Latinoamericano de Botánica, UAM-Iztapalapa, Apartado Postal 55-535, 09340 Mexico, DF, Mexico. E-mail: socbot@alquimia.encb.ipn.mx or clb@xanum.uam.mx

New Publications of Note

Buck, W. R. 1998. Pleurocarpous mosses of the West Indies. Mem. New York Bot. Gard. 82: 1-400. $49.00 (hardcover) plus postage & handling. Scientific Publications Dept., New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458-5126, U.S.A. This (the first of two volumes; the second to cover the acrocarpus mosses) volume treats the pleurocarpus mosses of Bermuda, the Bahamas, and the West Indian islands.

Liogier, H. A. 1997. Descriptive flora of Puerto Rico and adjacent islands, Spermatophyta-Dicotyledonae. Vol. V Acanthaceae to Compositae. Editorial de la Univerisdad de Puerto Rico: San Juan, Puerto Rico. 436 pp. (paperback). Editorial de la Univeridad de Puerto Rico, Apartado 23322, San Juan, PR 00931-3322. This last volume of Liogier's Descriptive Flora covers the families from Acanthaceae through the Compositae. A Supplement, pp. 386-412, to the first four volumes includes Nomenclatural notes and additions or deletions of other species of Puerto Rico. See pp. 404406, where Malpighia woodburyana Vivaldi, sp. nov., is published.

McCracken, D. P. 1997. Gardens of Empire: Botanical institutions of the Victorian British Empire. Leicester University Press: London. xiv + 242 pp. Leicester University Press, 125 Strand, London WC2R 0BB, England. Finally, we have a volume summarizing the botanical garden activity in the British colonies. The analysis covers the found-ation, extent, management, and achievements of 120 botanic gardens, herbaria, and botanic stations (which also functioned as agricultural research and plant introduction agents) around the world.

Bibliography of Caribbean Botany. 13

Thomas A. Zanoni

The twelfth part of this bibliographic series on Caribbean plants, plant ecology, and plant taxonomy covering the years 1984 to the present, was published in the Flora of the Greater Antilles Newsletter No. 13 , of October 1997.

Authors are encouraged to send copies of articles and photocopies of the title pages of books (with complete bibliographic data) to the editor of this series:

T. A. Zanoni

New York Botanical Garden
Bronx, NY 10458-5126, U.S.A.
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Walker, L. R., W. L. Silver, M. R. Willig & J. K. Zimmerman. 1997. Biotropica special issue: Long term responses of Caribbean ecosystems to disturbance. Biotropica 28(4a): 414-614.

Walker, L. R., D. J. Zarin, N. Fetcher, R. W. Myster & A. H. Johnson. 1997. Ecosystem development and plant succession on landslides in the Caribbean. Biotropica 28: 566-576.

Walker, M. 1997. Anguilla: from hobby to The Anguilla Flora Project in ten years. Wild Fl. (Toronto) 13(4): 39-42.

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Wynne, M. J. 1997. Rosenvignea antillarum (P. Crouan & H. Crouan) comb. nov. to replace R. floridana (W. R. Taylor) W. R. Taylor (Scytosiphonales, Phaeophyta). Cryptogamie, Algol. 18: 331-336.

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Zimmerman, J. K., M. R. Willig, L. R. Walker & W. L. Silver. 1997. Introduction: Disturbance and Caribbean ecosystems. Biotropica 28: 414-423.

Zona, S. 1997. The genera of Palmae (Arecaceae) in the southeastern United States. Harvard Pap. Bot. 11: 71-107.[Acoelorrhaphe, Acrocomia, Coccothrinax, Caryota, Chamaedorea, Cocos, Dypsis, Elaeis, Livistona, Phoenix, Pseudophoenix, Rhaphidophyllum, Roystonea, Sabal, Serenoa, Syagrus, Thrinax, Washingtonia.].

Zurovchak, J. G. 1997. Hamelia patens (Rubiaceae) accelerates fruit maturation rate in response to increased fruit removal. Biotropica 29: 229-231.

Zucconi, L. & D. Lunghini. 1997. Studies on Mediterranean hyphomycetes. VI. Remarks on Bactrodesmium and B. cubense comb. nov. Mycotaxon 63: 323-327.

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